عفونت سایتومگالوویروس و پیوند سلول‌های بنیادی خون‌ساز، از تأثیر آن بر سیستم ایمنی تا پروسه‌های درمانی آن
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چکیده
مقدمه: سایتومگالوویروس (Cytomegalovirus)، ویروسی از خانواده‌ی هرپس ویروس‌ها است که فعال شدن دوباره‌ی آن بعد از دوره‌ی نهفتگی، موجب بروز عفونت و افزایش ریسک مرگ و میر پس از پیوند سلول‌های بنیادی خون‌ساز می‌گردد. بررسی مکانیسم‌های ایمنی دخیل در بروز عفونت سایتومگالوویروس و فعال شدن دوباره‌ی ویروس پس از پیوند، در کنترل عفونت و کاهش اثرات مضر آن در نتیجهی پیوند اهمیت بسیاری دارد.
شیوه‌ی مطالعه: این مقاله‌ی مروری، پاتوفیزیولوژی سایتومگالوویروس و تأثیر آن بر سیستم ایمنی را توصیف می‌کند و داروهای ضد ویروسی اختصاصی آن را مرور مینماید. بدین منظور واژگان کلیدی در پایگاههای اطلاعاتی معتبر مانند Google Scholar، PubMed، Scopus و Elsevier از سال 2000 تا 2020 جستجو شدند. در این میان، مطالعاتی که بیشترین ارتباط را با اهداف نگارش این مقاله داشتند، انتخاب و مورد استفاده قرار گرفتند.
نتیجه‌گیری: عفونت با سایتومگالوویروس، همچنان به عنوان یکی از مهم‌ترین عوارض پس از پیوند سلول‌های بنیادی خون‌ساز آلوژن باقی مانده است. پاسخ‌های سلول T در ایجاد مصونیت طولانی‌مدت و جلوگیری از فعال شدن دوباره‌ی ویروس، نقش مهمی ایفا میکنند. پس از پیوند، عفونت ابتدایی با ویروس و یا فعال شدن دوباره‌ی عفونت ویروسی نهفته، اثراتی بر پاسخ‌های سیستم ایمنی علیه این عفونت ایجاد می‌کند. یکی از اثرات مهم این ویروس بر سیستم ایمنی، تأخیر در بازسازی سیستم ایمنی پس از پیوند می‌باشد. همچنین با وجود اینکه داروهای ضد ویروسی موجود، اثربخشی مطلوبی در جلوگیری و درمان عفونت سایتومگالوویروسی پس از پیوند نشان داده‌اند، اما ممکن است با افزایش خطر سمیت و مقاومت به دارو به دنبال مصرف طولانی‌مدت نیز همراه باشند. بنابراین ابداع روش‌های درمانی مکمل نوین، ایمن، قابل تحمل و مؤثر برای پیشگیری، درمان و مقابله با مقاومت دارویی عفونت سایتومگالوویروسی پس از پیوند، مورد نیاز است.
کلمات کلیدی: سایتومگالو ویروس، پیوند سلول‌های بنیادی خون‌ساز، درمان ضد ویروسی، سیستم ایمنی
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استناد به مقاله
روشندلا., نورآذر امام چایل., فرهادی حسین آبادیب., حاجی فتحعلیع., & پرخیدهس. (2021). عفونت سایتومگالوویروس و پیوند سلول‌های بنیادی خون‌ساز، از تأثیر آن بر سیستم ایمنی تا پروسه‌های درمانی آن. مجله دانشکده پزشکی زابل, 191-201. Retrieved از http://jzms.ir/index.php/JZMS/article/view/224
نوع مقاله
مقاله مروری
مراجع
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2. Cho SY, Lee DG, Kim HJ. Cytomegalovirus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: current status and future immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20(11): 2666.
3. Girmenia C. Advances in CMV infection prevention and treatment after allo‐HSCT. Advances in Cell and Gene Therapy 2019; 2(3): e53.
4. Ljungman P, Griffiths P, Paya C. Definitions of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34(8): 1094-7.
5. Ariza-Heredia EJ, Nesher L, Chemaly RF. Cytomegalovirus diseases after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a mini-review. Cancer Lett 2014; 342(1): 1-8.
6. Boeckh M, Ljungman P. How we treat cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood 2009; 113(23): 5711-9.
7. Eid AJ, Razonable RR. New developments in
the management of cytomegalovirus infection after solid organ transplantation. Drugs 2010; 70(8): 965-81.
8. Camargo JF, Komanduri KV. Emerging concepts in cytomegalovirus infection following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther 2017; 10(4): 233-8.
9. Hakki M, Ljungman P. Cytomegalovirus infection after stem cell transplantation. Transplant Infections: Springer; 2016. p. 417-40.
10. Camargo JF. Cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. In: Morris M, Kotton C, Wolfe C. editors. Emerging Transplant Infections. Springer, Cham; 2020.
11. Goodrum F, Caviness K, Zagallo P. Human cytomegalovirus persistence. Cell Microbiol 2012; 14(5): 644-55.
12. Nichols WG, Corey L, Gooley T, Davis C, Boeckh M. High risk of death due to bacterial and fungal infection among cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seronegative recipients of stem cell transplants from seropositive donors: evidence for indirect effects of primary CMV infection. J Infec Dis 2002; 185(3): 273-82.
13. Pande A, Dubberke ER. Cytomegalovirus infections of the stem cell transplant recipient and hematologic malignancy patient. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33(2): 485-500.
14. Brinkmann MM, Dağ F, Hengel H, Messerle M, Kalinke U, Čičin-Šain L. Cytomegalovirus immune evasion of myeloid lineage cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 2015; 204(3): 367-82.
15. Styczynski J. Who Is the patient at risk of CMV Recurrence: A review of the current scientific evidence with a focus on hematopoietic cell transplantation. Infect Dis Ther 2018; 7(1): 1-16.
16. Nichols WG, Price TH, Gooley T, Corey L, Boeckh M. Transfusion-transmitted cytomegalovirus infection after receipt of leukoreduced blood products. Blood 2003; 101(10): 4195-200.
17. Ljungman P, Perez-Bercoff L, Jonsson J, Avetisyan G, Sparrelid E, Aschan J, et al. Risk factors for the development of cytomegalovirus disease after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Haematologica 2006; 91(1): 78-83.
18. Melendez-Munoz R, Marchalik R, Jerussi T, Dimitrova D, Nussenblatt V, Beri A, et al. Cytomegalovirus Infection Incidence and Risk Factors Across Diverse Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Platforms Using a Standardized Monitoring and Treatment Approach: A Comprehensive Evaluation from a Single Institution. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2019; 25(3): 577-86.
19. Milano F, Pergam SA, Xie H, Leisenring WM, Gutman JA, Riffkin I, et al. Intensive strategy to prevent CMV disease in seropositive umbilical cord blood transplant recipients. Blood 2011; 118(20): 5689-96.
20. Turchinovich G, Pennington DJ. T cell receptor signalling in γδ cell development: strength isn’t everything. Trends Immunol 2011; 32(12):
567-73.
21. McGoldrick SM, Bleakley ME, Guerrero A, Turtle CJ, Yamamoto TN, Pereira SE, et al. Cytomegalovirus-specific T cells are primed early after cord blood transplant but fail to control virus in vivo. Blood 2013; 121(14): 2796-803.
22. Smith C, Khanna R. Immune regulation of human herpesviruses and its implications for human transplantation. Am J Transplant 2013; 13(Suppl 3): 9-23.
23. DeFilippis VR, Alvarado D, Sali T, Rothenburg S, Früh K. Human cytomegalovirus induces the interferon response via the DNA sensor ZBP1. J Virol 2010; 84(1): 585-98.
24. Tabeta K, Georgel P, Janssen E, Du X, Hoebe K, Crozat K, et al. Toll-like receptors 9 and 3 as essential components of innate immune defense against mouse cytomegalovirus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101(10): 3516-21.
25. Malmberg KJ, Beziat V, Ljunggren HG. Spotlight on NKG 2 C and the human NK‐cell response to CMV infection. Eur J Immunol
2012; 42(12): 3141-5.
26. Cook M, Briggs D, Craddock C, Mahendra P, Milligan D, Fegan C, et al. Donor KIR genotype has a major influence on the rate of cytomegalovirus reactivation following T-cell replete stem cell transplantation. Blood 2006; 107(3): 1230-2.
27. Crough T, Khanna R. Immunobiology of human cytomegalovirus: from bench to bedside. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22(1): 76-98.
28. Stern L, Withers B, Avdic S, Gottlieb D, Abendroth A, Blyth E, et al. Human cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1186.
29. Navarro D, Fernández‐Ruiz M, Aguado JM, Sandonís V, Pérez‐Romero P. Going beyond serology for stratifying the risk of CMV infection in transplant recipients. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29(1): e2017.
30. Brune W, Andoniou CE. Die another day: Inhibition of cell death pathways by cytomegalovirus. Viruses 2017; 9(9): 249.
31. Lilleri D, Kabanova A, Lanzavecchia A, Gerna G. Antibodies against neutralization epitopes of human cytomegalovirus gH/gL/pUL128-130-131 complex and virus spreading may correlate with virus control in vivo. J Clin Immunol 2012; 32(6): 1324-31.
32. Boeckh M, Geballe AP. Cytomegalovirus: pathogen, paradigm, and puzzle. J Clin invest 2011; 121(5): 1673-80.
33. Sylwester AW, Mitchell BL, Edgar JB, Taormina C, Pelte C, Ruchti F, et al. Broadly targeted human cytomegalovirus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells dominate the memory compartments of exposed subjects. J Exp Med 2005; 202(5): 673-85.
34. Suarez J, Rosa R, Lorio M, Morris MI, Abbo L, Simkins J, et al. Pretransplant CD 4 Count Influences Immune Reconstitution and Risk of Infectious Complications in Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected Kidney Allograft Recipients. Am J Transplant 2016; 16(8): 2463-72.
35. Fleming T, Dunne J, Crowley B. Ex vivo monitoring of human cytomegalovirus‐specific CD8+ T‐Cell responses using the QuantiFERON®‐CMV assay in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients attending an Irish hospital. J Med Virol 2010; 82(3): 433-40.
36. Betts MR, Nason MC, West SM, De Rosa SC, Migueles SA, Abraham J, et al. HIV nonprogressors preferentially maintain highly functional HIV-specific CD8+ T cells. Blood 2006; 107(12): 4781-9.
37. Krol L, Stuchly J, Hubacek P, Keslová P, Sedlacek P, Kalina T, et al. Signature Profiles of CMV-Specific T-Cells in Pediatric Patients with CMV Reactivation After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant
2011; 46(8): 1089-98.
38. Camargo JF, Wieder ED, Kimble E, Benjamin CL, Kolonias DS, Kwon D, et al. Deep functional immunophenotyping predicts risk of cytomegalovirus reactivation after hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2019; 133(8): 867-77.
39. Pelák O, Stuchlý J, Król L, Hubáček P, Keslová P, Sedláček P, et al. Appearance of cytomegalovirus‐specific T‐cells predicts fast resolution of viremia post hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 2017; 92(5): 380-8.
40. Cichocki F, Cooley S, Davis Z, DeFor TE, Schlums H, Zhang B, et al. CD56 dim CD57+ NKG2C+ NK cell expansion is associated with reduced leukemia relapse after reduced intensity HCT. Leukemia 2016; 30(2): 456-63.
41. Widmann T, Sester U, Gärtner BC, Schubert J, Pfreundschuh M, Köhler H, et al. Levels of CMV Specific CD4 T Cells Are Dynamic and Correlate with CMV Viremia after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. PLoS One 2008; 3(11): e3634.
42. Stern L, Withers B, Avdic S, Gottlieb D, Abendroth A, Blyth E, et al. Human Cytomegalovirus Latency and Reactivation in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Front Microbiol 2019;10: 1186.
43. Campos AB, Ribeiro J, Boutolleau D, Sousa H. Human cytomegalovirus antiviral drug resistance in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: current state of the art. Rev Med Virol 2016; 26(3): 161-82.
44. Yanada M, Yamamoto K, Emi N, Naoe T, Suzuki R, Taji H, et al. Cytomegalovirus antigenemia and outcome of patients treated
with pre-emptive ganciclovir: retrospective analysis of 241 consecutive patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003; 32(8): 801-7.
45. Shmueli E, Or R, Shapira MY, Resnick IB, Caplan O, Bdolah-Abram T, et al. High rate of cytomegalovirus drug resistance among patients receiving preemptive antiviral treatment after haploidentical stem cell transplantation. J Infect Dis 2014; 209(4): 557-61.
46. Piret J, Boivin G. Clinical development of letermovir and maribavir: overview of human cytomegalovirus drug resistance. Antiviral Res 2019; 163: 91-105.
47. El Chaer F, Shah DP, Chemaly RF. How I treat resistant cytomegalovirus infection in hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients. Blood 2016; 128(23): 2624-36.
48. Boeckh M, Murphy WJ, Peggs KS. Reprint of: Recent advances in cytomegalovirus: an update on pharmacologic and cellular therapies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2015; 21(2Suppl): S19-S24.
49. Ramsay ID, Attwood C, Irish D, Griffiths PD, Kyriakou C, Lowe DM. Disseminated adenovirus infection after allogeneic stem cell transplant and the potential role of brincidofovir–case series and 10 year experience of management in an adult transplant cohort. J Clin Virol 2017; 96:73-9.
50. Sutrave G, Gottlieb DJ. Adoptive cell therapies for posttransplant infections. Curr Opin Oncol 2019; 31(6): 574-90.
51. Ali A, Chiuppesi F, Nguyen M, Hausner MA, Nguyen J, Kha M, et al. Chimeric Antigen Receptors Targeting Human Cytomegalovirus. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2020.
2. Cho SY, Lee DG, Kim HJ. Cytomegalovirus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: current status and future immunotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20(11): 2666.
3. Girmenia C. Advances in CMV infection prevention and treatment after allo‐HSCT. Advances in Cell and Gene Therapy 2019; 2(3): e53.
4. Ljungman P, Griffiths P, Paya C. Definitions of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34(8): 1094-7.
5. Ariza-Heredia EJ, Nesher L, Chemaly RF. Cytomegalovirus diseases after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a mini-review. Cancer Lett 2014; 342(1): 1-8.
6. Boeckh M, Ljungman P. How we treat cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood 2009; 113(23): 5711-9.
7. Eid AJ, Razonable RR. New developments in
the management of cytomegalovirus infection after solid organ transplantation. Drugs 2010; 70(8): 965-81.
8. Camargo JF, Komanduri KV. Emerging concepts in cytomegalovirus infection following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther 2017; 10(4): 233-8.
9. Hakki M, Ljungman P. Cytomegalovirus infection after stem cell transplantation. Transplant Infections: Springer; 2016. p. 417-40.
10. Camargo JF. Cytomegalovirus in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. In: Morris M, Kotton C, Wolfe C. editors. Emerging Transplant Infections. Springer, Cham; 2020.
11. Goodrum F, Caviness K, Zagallo P. Human cytomegalovirus persistence. Cell Microbiol 2012; 14(5): 644-55.
12. Nichols WG, Corey L, Gooley T, Davis C, Boeckh M. High risk of death due to bacterial and fungal infection among cytomegalovirus (CMV)-seronegative recipients of stem cell transplants from seropositive donors: evidence for indirect effects of primary CMV infection. J Infec Dis 2002; 185(3): 273-82.
13. Pande A, Dubberke ER. Cytomegalovirus infections of the stem cell transplant recipient and hematologic malignancy patient. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33(2): 485-500.
14. Brinkmann MM, Dağ F, Hengel H, Messerle M, Kalinke U, Čičin-Šain L. Cytomegalovirus immune evasion of myeloid lineage cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 2015; 204(3): 367-82.
15. Styczynski J. Who Is the patient at risk of CMV Recurrence: A review of the current scientific evidence with a focus on hematopoietic cell transplantation. Infect Dis Ther 2018; 7(1): 1-16.
16. Nichols WG, Price TH, Gooley T, Corey L, Boeckh M. Transfusion-transmitted cytomegalovirus infection after receipt of leukoreduced blood products. Blood 2003; 101(10): 4195-200.
17. Ljungman P, Perez-Bercoff L, Jonsson J, Avetisyan G, Sparrelid E, Aschan J, et al. Risk factors for the development of cytomegalovirus disease after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Haematologica 2006; 91(1): 78-83.
18. Melendez-Munoz R, Marchalik R, Jerussi T, Dimitrova D, Nussenblatt V, Beri A, et al. Cytomegalovirus Infection Incidence and Risk Factors Across Diverse Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation Platforms Using a Standardized Monitoring and Treatment Approach: A Comprehensive Evaluation from a Single Institution. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2019; 25(3): 577-86.
19. Milano F, Pergam SA, Xie H, Leisenring WM, Gutman JA, Riffkin I, et al. Intensive strategy to prevent CMV disease in seropositive umbilical cord blood transplant recipients. Blood 2011; 118(20): 5689-96.
20. Turchinovich G, Pennington DJ. T cell receptor signalling in γδ cell development: strength isn’t everything. Trends Immunol 2011; 32(12):
567-73.
21. McGoldrick SM, Bleakley ME, Guerrero A, Turtle CJ, Yamamoto TN, Pereira SE, et al. Cytomegalovirus-specific T cells are primed early after cord blood transplant but fail to control virus in vivo. Blood 2013; 121(14): 2796-803.
22. Smith C, Khanna R. Immune regulation of human herpesviruses and its implications for human transplantation. Am J Transplant 2013; 13(Suppl 3): 9-23.
23. DeFilippis VR, Alvarado D, Sali T, Rothenburg S, Früh K. Human cytomegalovirus induces the interferon response via the DNA sensor ZBP1. J Virol 2010; 84(1): 585-98.
24. Tabeta K, Georgel P, Janssen E, Du X, Hoebe K, Crozat K, et al. Toll-like receptors 9 and 3 as essential components of innate immune defense against mouse cytomegalovirus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101(10): 3516-21.
25. Malmberg KJ, Beziat V, Ljunggren HG. Spotlight on NKG 2 C and the human NK‐cell response to CMV infection. Eur J Immunol
2012; 42(12): 3141-5.
26. Cook M, Briggs D, Craddock C, Mahendra P, Milligan D, Fegan C, et al. Donor KIR genotype has a major influence on the rate of cytomegalovirus reactivation following T-cell replete stem cell transplantation. Blood 2006; 107(3): 1230-2.
27. Crough T, Khanna R. Immunobiology of human cytomegalovirus: from bench to bedside. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22(1): 76-98.
28. Stern L, Withers B, Avdic S, Gottlieb D, Abendroth A, Blyth E, et al. Human cytomegalovirus latency and reactivation in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1186.
29. Navarro D, Fernández‐Ruiz M, Aguado JM, Sandonís V, Pérez‐Romero P. Going beyond serology for stratifying the risk of CMV infection in transplant recipients. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29(1): e2017.
30. Brune W, Andoniou CE. Die another day: Inhibition of cell death pathways by cytomegalovirus. Viruses 2017; 9(9): 249.
31. Lilleri D, Kabanova A, Lanzavecchia A, Gerna G. Antibodies against neutralization epitopes of human cytomegalovirus gH/gL/pUL128-130-131 complex and virus spreading may correlate with virus control in vivo. J Clin Immunol 2012; 32(6): 1324-31.
32. Boeckh M, Geballe AP. Cytomegalovirus: pathogen, paradigm, and puzzle. J Clin invest 2011; 121(5): 1673-80.
33. Sylwester AW, Mitchell BL, Edgar JB, Taormina C, Pelte C, Ruchti F, et al. Broadly targeted human cytomegalovirus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells dominate the memory compartments of exposed subjects. J Exp Med 2005; 202(5): 673-85.
34. Suarez J, Rosa R, Lorio M, Morris MI, Abbo L, Simkins J, et al. Pretransplant CD 4 Count Influences Immune Reconstitution and Risk of Infectious Complications in Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected Kidney Allograft Recipients. Am J Transplant 2016; 16(8): 2463-72.
35. Fleming T, Dunne J, Crowley B. Ex vivo monitoring of human cytomegalovirus‐specific CD8+ T‐Cell responses using the QuantiFERON®‐CMV assay in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients attending an Irish hospital. J Med Virol 2010; 82(3): 433-40.
36. Betts MR, Nason MC, West SM, De Rosa SC, Migueles SA, Abraham J, et al. HIV nonprogressors preferentially maintain highly functional HIV-specific CD8+ T cells. Blood 2006; 107(12): 4781-9.
37. Krol L, Stuchly J, Hubacek P, Keslová P, Sedlacek P, Kalina T, et al. Signature Profiles of CMV-Specific T-Cells in Pediatric Patients with CMV Reactivation After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant
2011; 46(8): 1089-98.
38. Camargo JF, Wieder ED, Kimble E, Benjamin CL, Kolonias DS, Kwon D, et al. Deep functional immunophenotyping predicts risk of cytomegalovirus reactivation after hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood 2019; 133(8): 867-77.
39. Pelák O, Stuchlý J, Król L, Hubáček P, Keslová P, Sedláček P, et al. Appearance of cytomegalovirus‐specific T‐cells predicts fast resolution of viremia post hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 2017; 92(5): 380-8.
40. Cichocki F, Cooley S, Davis Z, DeFor TE, Schlums H, Zhang B, et al. CD56 dim CD57+ NKG2C+ NK cell expansion is associated with reduced leukemia relapse after reduced intensity HCT. Leukemia 2016; 30(2): 456-63.
41. Widmann T, Sester U, Gärtner BC, Schubert J, Pfreundschuh M, Köhler H, et al. Levels of CMV Specific CD4 T Cells Are Dynamic and Correlate with CMV Viremia after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. PLoS One 2008; 3(11): e3634.
42. Stern L, Withers B, Avdic S, Gottlieb D, Abendroth A, Blyth E, et al. Human Cytomegalovirus Latency and Reactivation in Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Front Microbiol 2019;10: 1186.
43. Campos AB, Ribeiro J, Boutolleau D, Sousa H. Human cytomegalovirus antiviral drug resistance in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: current state of the art. Rev Med Virol 2016; 26(3): 161-82.
44. Yanada M, Yamamoto K, Emi N, Naoe T, Suzuki R, Taji H, et al. Cytomegalovirus antigenemia and outcome of patients treated
with pre-emptive ganciclovir: retrospective analysis of 241 consecutive patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2003; 32(8): 801-7.
45. Shmueli E, Or R, Shapira MY, Resnick IB, Caplan O, Bdolah-Abram T, et al. High rate of cytomegalovirus drug resistance among patients receiving preemptive antiviral treatment after haploidentical stem cell transplantation. J Infect Dis 2014; 209(4): 557-61.
46. Piret J, Boivin G. Clinical development of letermovir and maribavir: overview of human cytomegalovirus drug resistance. Antiviral Res 2019; 163: 91-105.
47. El Chaer F, Shah DP, Chemaly RF. How I treat resistant cytomegalovirus infection in hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients. Blood 2016; 128(23): 2624-36.
48. Boeckh M, Murphy WJ, Peggs KS. Reprint of: Recent advances in cytomegalovirus: an update on pharmacologic and cellular therapies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2015; 21(2Suppl): S19-S24.
49. Ramsay ID, Attwood C, Irish D, Griffiths PD, Kyriakou C, Lowe DM. Disseminated adenovirus infection after allogeneic stem cell transplant and the potential role of brincidofovir–case series and 10 year experience of management in an adult transplant cohort. J Clin Virol 2017; 96:73-9.
50. Sutrave G, Gottlieb DJ. Adoptive cell therapies for posttransplant infections. Curr Opin Oncol 2019; 31(6): 574-90.
51. Ali A, Chiuppesi F, Nguyen M, Hausner MA, Nguyen J, Kha M, et al. Chimeric Antigen Receptors Targeting Human Cytomegalovirus. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2020.